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diff --git a/AppPkg/Applications/Python/Python-2.7.2/Objects/listsort.txt b/AppPkg/Applications/Python/Python-2.7.2/Objects/listsort.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..5fae0dcf3b --- /dev/null +++ b/AppPkg/Applications/Python/Python-2.7.2/Objects/listsort.txt @@ -0,0 +1,677 @@ +Intro
+-----
+This describes an adaptive, stable, natural mergesort, modestly called
+timsort (hey, I earned it <wink>). It has supernatural performance on many
+kinds of partially ordered arrays (less than lg(N!) comparisons needed, and
+as few as N-1), yet as fast as Python's previous highly tuned samplesort
+hybrid on random arrays.
+
+In a nutshell, the main routine marches over the array once, left to right,
+alternately identifying the next run, then merging it into the previous
+runs "intelligently". Everything else is complication for speed, and some
+hard-won measure of memory efficiency.
+
+
+Comparison with Python's Samplesort Hybrid
+------------------------------------------
++ timsort can require a temp array containing as many as N//2 pointers,
+ which means as many as 2*N extra bytes on 32-bit boxes. It can be
+ expected to require a temp array this large when sorting random data; on
+ data with significant structure, it may get away without using any extra
+ heap memory. This appears to be the strongest argument against it, but
+ compared to the size of an object, 2 temp bytes worst-case (also expected-
+ case for random data) doesn't scare me much.
+
+ It turns out that Perl is moving to a stable mergesort, and the code for
+ that appears always to require a temp array with room for at least N
+ pointers. (Note that I wouldn't want to do that even if space weren't an
+ issue; I believe its efforts at memory frugality also save timsort
+ significant pointer-copying costs, and allow it to have a smaller working
+ set.)
+
++ Across about four hours of generating random arrays, and sorting them
+ under both methods, samplesort required about 1.5% more comparisons
+ (the program is at the end of this file).
+
++ In real life, this may be faster or slower on random arrays than
+ samplesort was, depending on platform quirks. Since it does fewer
+ comparisons on average, it can be expected to do better the more
+ expensive a comparison function is. OTOH, it does more data movement
+ (pointer copying) than samplesort, and that may negate its small
+ comparison advantage (depending on platform quirks) unless comparison
+ is very expensive.
+
++ On arrays with many kinds of pre-existing order, this blows samplesort out
+ of the water. It's significantly faster than samplesort even on some
+ cases samplesort was special-casing the snot out of. I believe that lists
+ very often do have exploitable partial order in real life, and this is the
+ strongest argument in favor of timsort (indeed, samplesort's special cases
+ for extreme partial order are appreciated by real users, and timsort goes
+ much deeper than those, in particular naturally covering every case where
+ someone has suggested "and it would be cool if list.sort() had a special
+ case for this too ... and for that ...").
+
++ Here are exact comparison counts across all the tests in sortperf.py,
+ when run with arguments "15 20 1".
+
+ Column Key:
+ *sort: random data
+ \sort: descending data
+ /sort: ascending data
+ 3sort: ascending, then 3 random exchanges
+ +sort: ascending, then 10 random at the end
+ ~sort: many duplicates
+ =sort: all equal
+ !sort: worst case scenario
+
+ First the trivial cases, trivial for samplesort because it special-cased
+ them, and trivial for timsort because it naturally works on runs. Within
+ an "n" block, the first line gives the # of compares done by samplesort,
+ the second line by timsort, and the third line is the percentage by
+ which the samplesort count exceeds the timsort count:
+
+ n \sort /sort =sort
+------- ------ ------ ------
+ 32768 32768 32767 32767 samplesort
+ 32767 32767 32767 timsort
+ 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% (samplesort - timsort) / timsort
+
+ 65536 65536 65535 65535
+ 65535 65535 65535
+ 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
+
+ 131072 131072 131071 131071
+ 131071 131071 131071
+ 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
+
+ 262144 262144 262143 262143
+ 262143 262143 262143
+ 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
+
+ 524288 524288 524287 524287
+ 524287 524287 524287
+ 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
+
+1048576 1048576 1048575 1048575
+ 1048575 1048575 1048575
+ 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%
+
+ The algorithms are effectively identical in these cases, except that
+ timsort does one less compare in \sort.
+
+ Now for the more interesting cases. lg(n!) is the information-theoretic
+ limit for the best any comparison-based sorting algorithm can do on
+ average (across all permutations). When a method gets significantly
+ below that, it's either astronomically lucky, or is finding exploitable
+ structure in the data.
+
+ n lg(n!) *sort 3sort +sort %sort ~sort !sort
+------- ------- ------ ------- ------- ------ ------- --------
+ 32768 444255 453096 453614 32908 452871 130491 469141 old
+ 448885 33016 33007 50426 182083 65534 new
+ 0.94% 1273.92% -0.30% 798.09% -28.33% 615.87% %ch from new
+
+ 65536 954037 972699 981940 65686 973104 260029 1004607
+ 962991 65821 65808 101667 364341 131070
+ 1.01% 1391.83% -0.19% 857.15% -28.63% 666.47%
+
+ 131072 2039137 2101881 2091491 131232 2092894 554790 2161379
+ 2057533 131410 131361 206193 728871 262142
+ 2.16% 1491.58% -0.10% 915.02% -23.88% 724.51%
+
+ 262144 4340409 4464460 4403233 262314 4445884 1107842 4584560
+ 4377402 262437 262459 416347 1457945 524286
+ 1.99% 1577.82% -0.06% 967.83% -24.01% 774.44%
+
+ 524288 9205096 9453356 9408463 524468 9441930 2218577 9692015
+ 9278734 524580 524633 837947 2916107 1048574
+ 1.88% 1693.52% -0.03% 1026.79% -23.92% 824.30%
+
+1048576 19458756 19950272 19838588 1048766 19912134 4430649 20434212
+ 19606028 1048958 1048941 1694896 5832445 2097150
+ 1.76% 1791.27% -0.02% 1074.83% -24.03% 874.38%
+
+ Discussion of cases:
+
+ *sort: There's no structure in random data to exploit, so the theoretical
+ limit is lg(n!). Both methods get close to that, and timsort is hugging
+ it (indeed, in a *marginal* sense, it's a spectacular improvement --
+ there's only about 1% left before hitting the wall, and timsort knows
+ darned well it's doing compares that won't pay on random data -- but so
+ does the samplesort hybrid). For contrast, Hoare's original random-pivot
+ quicksort does about 39% more compares than the limit, and the median-of-3
+ variant about 19% more.
+
+ 3sort, %sort, and !sort: No contest; there's structure in this data, but
+ not of the specific kinds samplesort special-cases. Note that structure
+ in !sort wasn't put there on purpose -- it was crafted as a worst case for
+ a previous quicksort implementation. That timsort nails it came as a
+ surprise to me (although it's obvious in retrospect).
+
+ +sort: samplesort special-cases this data, and does a few less compares
+ than timsort. However, timsort runs this case significantly faster on all
+ boxes we have timings for, because timsort is in the business of merging
+ runs efficiently, while samplesort does much more data movement in this
+ (for it) special case.
+
+ ~sort: samplesort's special cases for large masses of equal elements are
+ extremely effective on ~sort's specific data pattern, and timsort just
+ isn't going to get close to that, despite that it's clearly getting a
+ great deal of benefit out of the duplicates (the # of compares is much less
+ than lg(n!)). ~sort has a perfectly uniform distribution of just 4
+ distinct values, and as the distribution gets more skewed, samplesort's
+ equal-element gimmicks become less effective, while timsort's adaptive
+ strategies find more to exploit; in a database supplied by Kevin Altis, a
+ sort on its highly skewed "on which stock exchange does this company's
+ stock trade?" field ran over twice as fast under timsort.
+
+ However, despite that timsort does many more comparisons on ~sort, and
+ that on several platforms ~sort runs highly significantly slower under
+ timsort, on other platforms ~sort runs highly significantly faster under
+ timsort. No other kind of data has shown this wild x-platform behavior,
+ and we don't have an explanation for it. The only thing I can think of
+ that could transform what "should be" highly significant slowdowns into
+ highly significant speedups on some boxes are catastrophic cache effects
+ in samplesort.
+
+ But timsort "should be" slower than samplesort on ~sort, so it's hard
+ to count that it isn't on some boxes as a strike against it <wink>.
+
++ Here's the highwater mark for the number of heap-based temp slots (4
+ bytes each on this box) needed by each test, again with arguments
+ "15 20 1":
+
+ 2**i *sort \sort /sort 3sort +sort %sort ~sort =sort !sort
+ 32768 16384 0 0 6256 0 10821 12288 0 16383
+ 65536 32766 0 0 21652 0 31276 24576 0 32767
+ 131072 65534 0 0 17258 0 58112 49152 0 65535
+ 262144 131072 0 0 35660 0 123561 98304 0 131071
+ 524288 262142 0 0 31302 0 212057 196608 0 262143
+1048576 524286 0 0 312438 0 484942 393216 0 524287
+
+ Discussion: The tests that end up doing (close to) perfectly balanced
+ merges (*sort, !sort) need all N//2 temp slots (or almost all). ~sort
+ also ends up doing balanced merges, but systematically benefits a lot from
+ the preliminary pre-merge searches described under "Merge Memory" later.
+ %sort approaches having a balanced merge at the end because the random
+ selection of elements to replace is expected to produce an out-of-order
+ element near the midpoint. \sort, /sort, =sort are the trivial one-run
+ cases, needing no merging at all. +sort ends up having one very long run
+ and one very short, and so gets all the temp space it needs from the small
+ temparray member of the MergeState struct (note that the same would be
+ true if the new random elements were prefixed to the sorted list instead,
+ but not if they appeared "in the middle"). 3sort approaches N//3 temp
+ slots twice, but the run lengths that remain after 3 random exchanges
+ clearly has very high variance.
+
+
+A detailed description of timsort follows.
+
+Runs
+----
+count_run() returns the # of elements in the next run. A run is either
+"ascending", which means non-decreasing:
+
+ a0 <= a1 <= a2 <= ...
+
+or "descending", which means strictly decreasing:
+
+ a0 > a1 > a2 > ...
+
+Note that a run is always at least 2 long, unless we start at the array's
+last element.
+
+The definition of descending is strict, because the main routine reverses
+a descending run in-place, transforming a descending run into an ascending
+run. Reversal is done via the obvious fast "swap elements starting at each
+end, and converge at the middle" method, and that can violate stability if
+the slice contains any equal elements. Using a strict definition of
+descending ensures that a descending run contains distinct elements.
+
+If an array is random, it's very unlikely we'll see long runs. If a natural
+run contains less than minrun elements (see next section), the main loop
+artificially boosts it to minrun elements, via a stable binary insertion sort
+applied to the right number of array elements following the short natural
+run. In a random array, *all* runs are likely to be minrun long as a
+result. This has two primary good effects:
+
+1. Random data strongly tends then toward perfectly balanced (both runs have
+ the same length) merges, which is the most efficient way to proceed when
+ data is random.
+
+2. Because runs are never very short, the rest of the code doesn't make
+ heroic efforts to shave a few cycles off per-merge overheads. For
+ example, reasonable use of function calls is made, rather than trying to
+ inline everything. Since there are no more than N/minrun runs to begin
+ with, a few "extra" function calls per merge is barely measurable.
+
+
+Computing minrun
+----------------
+If N < 64, minrun is N. IOW, binary insertion sort is used for the whole
+array then; it's hard to beat that given the overheads of trying something
+fancier.
+
+When N is a power of 2, testing on random data showed that minrun values of
+16, 32, 64 and 128 worked about equally well. At 256 the data-movement cost
+in binary insertion sort clearly hurt, and at 8 the increase in the number
+of function calls clearly hurt. Picking *some* power of 2 is important
+here, so that the merges end up perfectly balanced (see next section). We
+pick 32 as a good value in the sweet range; picking a value at the low end
+allows the adaptive gimmicks more opportunity to exploit shorter natural
+runs.
+
+Because sortperf.py only tries powers of 2, it took a long time to notice
+that 32 isn't a good choice for the general case! Consider N=2112:
+
+>>> divmod(2112, 32)
+(66, 0)
+>>>
+
+If the data is randomly ordered, we're very likely to end up with 66 runs
+each of length 32. The first 64 of these trigger a sequence of perfectly
+balanced merges (see next section), leaving runs of lengths 2048 and 64 to
+merge at the end. The adaptive gimmicks can do that with fewer than 2048+64
+compares, but it's still more compares than necessary, and-- mergesort's
+bugaboo relative to samplesort --a lot more data movement (O(N) copies just
+to get 64 elements into place).
+
+If we take minrun=33 in this case, then we're very likely to end up with 64
+runs each of length 33, and then all merges are perfectly balanced. Better!
+
+What we want to avoid is picking minrun such that in
+
+ q, r = divmod(N, minrun)
+
+q is a power of 2 and r>0 (then the last merge only gets r elements into
+place, and r < minrun is small compared to N), or q a little larger than a
+power of 2 regardless of r (then we've got a case similar to "2112", again
+leaving too little work for the last merge to do).
+
+Instead we pick a minrun in range(32, 65) such that N/minrun is exactly a
+power of 2, or if that isn't possible, is close to, but strictly less than,
+a power of 2. This is easier to do than it may sound: take the first 6
+bits of N, and add 1 if any of the remaining bits are set. In fact, that
+rule covers every case in this section, including small N and exact powers
+of 2; merge_compute_minrun() is a deceptively simple function.
+
+
+The Merge Pattern
+-----------------
+In order to exploit regularities in the data, we're merging on natural
+run lengths, and they can become wildly unbalanced. That's a Good Thing
+for this sort! It means we have to find a way to manage an assortment of
+potentially very different run lengths, though.
+
+Stability constrains permissible merging patterns. For example, if we have
+3 consecutive runs of lengths
+
+ A:10000 B:20000 C:10000
+
+we dare not merge A with C first, because if A, B and C happen to contain
+a common element, it would get out of order wrt its occurrence(s) in B. The
+merging must be done as (A+B)+C or A+(B+C) instead.
+
+So merging is always done on two consecutive runs at a time, and in-place,
+although this may require some temp memory (more on that later).
+
+When a run is identified, its base address and length are pushed on a stack
+in the MergeState struct. merge_collapse() is then called to see whether it
+should merge it with preceding run(s). We would like to delay merging as
+long as possible in order to exploit patterns that may come up later, but we
+like even more to do merging as soon as possible to exploit that the run just
+found is still high in the memory hierarchy. We also can't delay merging
+"too long" because it consumes memory to remember the runs that are still
+unmerged, and the stack has a fixed size.
+
+What turned out to be a good compromise maintains two invariants on the
+stack entries, where A, B and C are the lengths of the three righmost not-yet
+merged slices:
+
+1. A > B+C
+2. B > C
+
+Note that, by induction, #2 implies the lengths of pending runs form a
+decreasing sequence. #1 implies that, reading the lengths right to left,
+the pending-run lengths grow at least as fast as the Fibonacci numbers.
+Therefore the stack can never grow larger than about log_base_phi(N) entries,
+where phi = (1+sqrt(5))/2 ~= 1.618. Thus a small # of stack slots suffice
+for very large arrays.
+
+If A <= B+C, the smaller of A and C is merged with B (ties favor C, for the
+freshness-in-cache reason), and the new run replaces the A,B or B,C entries;
+e.g., if the last 3 entries are
+
+ A:30 B:20 C:10
+
+then B is merged with C, leaving
+
+ A:30 BC:30
+
+on the stack. Or if they were
+
+ A:500 B:400: C:1000
+
+then A is merged with B, leaving
+
+ AB:900 C:1000
+
+on the stack.
+
+In both examples, the stack configuration after the merge still violates
+invariant #2, and merge_collapse() goes on to continue merging runs until
+both invariants are satisfied. As an extreme case, suppose we didn't do the
+minrun gimmick, and natural runs were of lengths 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2,
+and 2. Nothing would get merged until the final 2 was seen, and that would
+trigger 7 perfectly balanced merges.
+
+The thrust of these rules when they trigger merging is to balance the run
+lengths as closely as possible, while keeping a low bound on the number of
+runs we have to remember. This is maximally effective for random data,
+where all runs are likely to be of (artificially forced) length minrun, and
+then we get a sequence of perfectly balanced merges (with, perhaps, some
+oddballs at the end).
+
+OTOH, one reason this sort is so good for partly ordered data has to do
+with wildly unbalanced run lengths.
+
+
+Merge Memory
+------------
+Merging adjacent runs of lengths A and B in-place is very difficult.
+Theoretical constructions are known that can do it, but they're too difficult
+and slow for practical use. But if we have temp memory equal to min(A, B),
+it's easy.
+
+If A is smaller (function merge_lo), copy A to a temp array, leave B alone,
+and then we can do the obvious merge algorithm left to right, from the temp
+area and B, starting the stores into where A used to live. There's always a
+free area in the original area comprising a number of elements equal to the
+number not yet merged from the temp array (trivially true at the start;
+proceed by induction). The only tricky bit is that if a comparison raises an
+exception, we have to remember to copy the remaining elements back in from
+the temp area, lest the array end up with duplicate entries from B. But
+that's exactly the same thing we need to do if we reach the end of B first,
+so the exit code is pleasantly common to both the normal and error cases.
+
+If B is smaller (function merge_hi, which is merge_lo's "mirror image"),
+much the same, except that we need to merge right to left, copying B into a
+temp array and starting the stores at the right end of where B used to live.
+
+A refinement: When we're about to merge adjacent runs A and B, we first do
+a form of binary search (more on that later) to see where B[0] should end up
+in A. Elements in A preceding that point are already in their final
+positions, effectively shrinking the size of A. Likewise we also search to
+see where A[-1] should end up in B, and elements of B after that point can
+also be ignored. This cuts the amount of temp memory needed by the same
+amount.
+
+These preliminary searches may not pay off, and can be expected *not* to
+repay their cost if the data is random. But they can win huge in all of
+time, copying, and memory savings when they do pay, so this is one of the
+"per-merge overheads" mentioned above that we're happy to endure because
+there is at most one very short run. It's generally true in this algorithm
+that we're willing to gamble a little to win a lot, even though the net
+expectation is negative for random data.
+
+
+Merge Algorithms
+----------------
+merge_lo() and merge_hi() are where the bulk of the time is spent. merge_lo
+deals with runs where A <= B, and merge_hi where A > B. They don't know
+whether the data is clustered or uniform, but a lovely thing about merging
+is that many kinds of clustering "reveal themselves" by how many times in a
+row the winning merge element comes from the same run. We'll only discuss
+merge_lo here; merge_hi is exactly analogous.
+
+Merging begins in the usual, obvious way, comparing the first element of A
+to the first of B, and moving B[0] to the merge area if it's less than A[0],
+else moving A[0] to the merge area. Call that the "one pair at a time"
+mode. The only twist here is keeping track of how many times in a row "the
+winner" comes from the same run.
+
+If that count reaches MIN_GALLOP, we switch to "galloping mode". Here
+we *search* B for where A[0] belongs, and move over all the B's before
+that point in one chunk to the merge area, then move A[0] to the merge
+area. Then we search A for where B[0] belongs, and similarly move a
+slice of A in one chunk. Then back to searching B for where A[0] belongs,
+etc. We stay in galloping mode until both searches find slices to copy
+less than MIN_GALLOP elements long, at which point we go back to one-pair-
+at-a-time mode.
+
+A refinement: The MergeState struct contains the value of min_gallop that
+controls when we enter galloping mode, initialized to MIN_GALLOP.
+merge_lo() and merge_hi() adjust this higher when galloping isn't paying
+off, and lower when it is.
+
+
+Galloping
+---------
+Still without loss of generality, assume A is the shorter run. In galloping
+mode, we first look for A[0] in B. We do this via "galloping", comparing
+A[0] in turn to B[0], B[1], B[3], B[7], ..., B[2**j - 1], ..., until finding
+the k such that B[2**(k-1) - 1] < A[0] <= B[2**k - 1]. This takes at most
+roughly lg(B) comparisons, and, unlike a straight binary search, favors
+finding the right spot early in B (more on that later).
+
+After finding such a k, the region of uncertainty is reduced to 2**(k-1) - 1
+consecutive elements, and a straight binary search requires exactly k-1
+additional comparisons to nail it. Then we copy all the B's up to that
+point in one chunk, and then copy A[0]. Note that no matter where A[0]
+belongs in B, the combination of galloping + binary search finds it in no
+more than about 2*lg(B) comparisons.
+
+If we did a straight binary search, we could find it in no more than
+ceiling(lg(B+1)) comparisons -- but straight binary search takes that many
+comparisons no matter where A[0] belongs. Straight binary search thus loses
+to galloping unless the run is quite long, and we simply can't guess
+whether it is in advance.
+
+If data is random and runs have the same length, A[0] belongs at B[0] half
+the time, at B[1] a quarter of the time, and so on: a consecutive winning
+sub-run in B of length k occurs with probability 1/2**(k+1). So long
+winning sub-runs are extremely unlikely in random data, and guessing that a
+winning sub-run is going to be long is a dangerous game.
+
+OTOH, if data is lopsided or lumpy or contains many duplicates, long
+stretches of winning sub-runs are very likely, and cutting the number of
+comparisons needed to find one from O(B) to O(log B) is a huge win.
+
+Galloping compromises by getting out fast if there isn't a long winning
+sub-run, yet finding such very efficiently when they exist.
+
+I first learned about the galloping strategy in a related context; see:
+
+ "Adaptive Set Intersections, Unions, and Differences" (2000)
+ Erik D. Demaine, Alejandro López-Ortiz, J. Ian Munro
+
+and its followup(s). An earlier paper called the same strategy
+"exponential search":
+
+ "Optimistic Sorting and Information Theoretic Complexity"
+ Peter McIlroy
+ SODA (Fourth Annual ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms), pp
+ 467-474, Austin, Texas, 25-27 January 1993.
+
+and it probably dates back to an earlier paper by Bentley and Yao. The
+McIlroy paper in particular has good analysis of a mergesort that's
+probably strongly related to this one in its galloping strategy.
+
+
+Galloping with a Broken Leg
+---------------------------
+So why don't we always gallop? Because it can lose, on two counts:
+
+1. While we're willing to endure small per-merge overheads, per-comparison
+ overheads are a different story. Calling Yet Another Function per
+ comparison is expensive, and gallop_left() and gallop_right() are
+ too long-winded for sane inlining.
+
+2. Galloping can-- alas --require more comparisons than linear one-at-time
+ search, depending on the data.
+
+#2 requires details. If A[0] belongs before B[0], galloping requires 1
+compare to determine that, same as linear search, except it costs more
+to call the gallop function. If A[0] belongs right before B[1], galloping
+requires 2 compares, again same as linear search. On the third compare,
+galloping checks A[0] against B[3], and if it's <=, requires one more
+compare to determine whether A[0] belongs at B[2] or B[3]. That's a total
+of 4 compares, but if A[0] does belong at B[2], linear search would have
+discovered that in only 3 compares, and that's a huge loss! Really. It's
+an increase of 33% in the number of compares needed, and comparisons are
+expensive in Python.
+
+index in B where # compares linear # gallop # binary gallop
+A[0] belongs search needs compares compares total
+---------------- ----------------- -------- -------- ------
+ 0 1 1 0 1
+
+ 1 2 2 0 2
+
+ 2 3 3 1 4
+ 3 4 3 1 4
+
+ 4 5 4 2 6
+ 5 6 4 2 6
+ 6 7 4 2 6
+ 7 8 4 2 6
+
+ 8 9 5 3 8
+ 9 10 5 3 8
+ 10 11 5 3 8
+ 11 12 5 3 8
+ ...
+
+In general, if A[0] belongs at B[i], linear search requires i+1 comparisons
+to determine that, and galloping a total of 2*floor(lg(i))+2 comparisons.
+The advantage of galloping is unbounded as i grows, but it doesn't win at
+all until i=6. Before then, it loses twice (at i=2 and i=4), and ties
+at the other values. At and after i=6, galloping always wins.
+
+We can't guess in advance when it's going to win, though, so we do one pair
+at a time until the evidence seems strong that galloping may pay. MIN_GALLOP
+is 7, and that's pretty strong evidence. However, if the data is random, it
+simply will trigger galloping mode purely by luck every now and again, and
+it's quite likely to hit one of the losing cases next. On the other hand,
+in cases like ~sort, galloping always pays, and MIN_GALLOP is larger than it
+"should be" then. So the MergeState struct keeps a min_gallop variable
+that merge_lo and merge_hi adjust: the longer we stay in galloping mode,
+the smaller min_gallop gets, making it easier to transition back to
+galloping mode (if we ever leave it in the current merge, and at the
+start of the next merge). But whenever the gallop loop doesn't pay,
+min_gallop is increased by one, making it harder to transition back
+to galloping mode (and again both within a merge and across merges). For
+random data, this all but eliminates the gallop penalty: min_gallop grows
+large enough that we almost never get into galloping mode. And for cases
+like ~sort, min_gallop can fall to as low as 1. This seems to work well,
+but in all it's a minor improvement over using a fixed MIN_GALLOP value.
+
+
+Galloping Complication
+----------------------
+The description above was for merge_lo. merge_hi has to merge "from the
+other end", and really needs to gallop starting at the last element in a run
+instead of the first. Galloping from the first still works, but does more
+comparisons than it should (this is significant -- I timed it both ways).
+For this reason, the gallop_left() and gallop_right() functions have a
+"hint" argument, which is the index at which galloping should begin. So
+galloping can actually start at any index, and proceed at offsets of 1, 3,
+7, 15, ... or -1, -3, -7, -15, ... from the starting index.
+
+In the code as I type it's always called with either 0 or n-1 (where n is
+the # of elements in a run). It's tempting to try to do something fancier,
+melding galloping with some form of interpolation search; for example, if
+we're merging a run of length 1 with a run of length 10000, index 5000 is
+probably a better guess at the final result than either 0 or 9999. But
+it's unclear how to generalize that intuition usefully, and merging of
+wildly unbalanced runs already enjoys excellent performance.
+
+~sort is a good example of when balanced runs could benefit from a better
+hint value: to the extent possible, this would like to use a starting
+offset equal to the previous value of acount/bcount. Doing so saves about
+10% of the compares in ~sort. However, doing so is also a mixed bag,
+hurting other cases.
+
+
+Comparing Average # of Compares on Random Arrays
+------------------------------------------------
+[NOTE: This was done when the new algorithm used about 0.1% more compares
+ on random data than does its current incarnation.]
+
+Here list.sort() is samplesort, and list.msort() this sort:
+
+"""
+import random
+from time import clock as now
+
+def fill(n):
+ from random import random
+ return [random() for i in xrange(n)]
+
+def mycmp(x, y):
+ global ncmp
+ ncmp += 1
+ return cmp(x, y)
+
+def timeit(values, method):
+ global ncmp
+ X = values[:]
+ bound = getattr(X, method)
+ ncmp = 0
+ t1 = now()
+ bound(mycmp)
+ t2 = now()
+ return t2-t1, ncmp
+
+format = "%5s %9.2f %11d"
+f2 = "%5s %9.2f %11.2f"
+
+def drive():
+ count = sst = sscmp = mst = mscmp = nelts = 0
+ while True:
+ n = random.randrange(100000)
+ nelts += n
+ x = fill(n)
+
+ t, c = timeit(x, 'sort')
+ sst += t
+ sscmp += c
+
+ t, c = timeit(x, 'msort')
+ mst += t
+ mscmp += c
+
+ count += 1
+ if count % 10:
+ continue
+
+ print "count", count, "nelts", nelts
+ print format % ("sort", sst, sscmp)
+ print format % ("msort", mst, mscmp)
+ print f2 % ("", (sst-mst)*1e2/mst, (sscmp-mscmp)*1e2/mscmp)
+
+drive()
+"""
+
+I ran this on Windows and kept using the computer lightly while it was
+running. time.clock() is wall-clock time on Windows, with better than
+microsecond resolution. samplesort started with a 1.52% #-of-comparisons
+disadvantage, fell quickly to 1.48%, and then fluctuated within that small
+range. Here's the last chunk of output before I killed the job:
+
+count 2630 nelts 130906543
+ sort 6110.80 1937887573
+msort 6002.78 1909389381
+ 1.80 1.49
+
+We've done nearly 2 billion comparisons apiece at Python speed there, and
+that's enough <wink>.
+
+For random arrays of size 2 (yes, there are only 2 interesting ones),
+samplesort has a 50%(!) comparison disadvantage. This is a consequence of
+samplesort special-casing at most one ascending run at the start, then
+falling back to the general case if it doesn't find an ascending run
+immediately. The consequence is that it ends up using two compares to sort
+[2, 1]. Gratifyingly, timsort doesn't do any special-casing, so had to be
+taught how to deal with mixtures of ascending and descending runs
+efficiently in all cases.
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